As renewable energy and electric mobility grow, the sustainability of battery technologies has become an important area of analysis. Lithium-ion batteries dominate the market today. However, researchers are exploring graphene-based alternatives for their potential performance and environmental impact advantages. But measuring sustainability goes well beyond efficiency. Critical factors include the energy required for production, the availability and sourcing of raw materials, recyclability, toxicity, and how well these technologies support circular economy strategies.
Image Credit: luchschenF/Shutterstock.com
This article examines how lithium-ion and graphene-based lithium-ion batteries compare across these dimensions, drawing on recent life cycle assessments (LCAs) and sustainability studies.
Manufacturing and Lifecycle Impacts
Graphene battery production
The environmental profile of graphene-based batteries depends heavily on how graphene is produced. Industrial-scale studies show that electricity use and chemical processing are the main contributors to their environmental footprint.1 Thermal exfoliation methods appear less damaging than oxidation-reduction processes, but all routes remain energy-intensive.2
Reviews indicate that current synthesis pathways can result in very high carbon footprints for reduced graphene oxide composites, underlining the carbon intensity of present production techniques.
Lithium battery production
Lithium-ion battery manufacturing carries different but equally significant burdens. The largest share of impacts stems from active material production, particularly cathodes.3 Extraction and refining of lithium, cobalt, and nickel are especially carbon-intensive, while solvent use in electrode fabrication adds toxicity risks.
Although production processes are now more established than those for graphene, LCAs show that supply chains for lithium batteries still account for a considerable share of their carbon footprint.4
Comparative view
Graphene production is highly energy-intensive but requires fewer critical metals than lithium-based technologies. Lithium batteries, on the other hand, benefit from more established and efficient manufacturing processes, yet their reliance on mineral extraction creates ongoing sustainability challenges. Ultimately, the balance between the two depends heavily on the energy sources driving production and future breakthroughs in cleaner, greener synthesis methods.
Resource Extraction and Availability
Lithium dependencies
Lithium-ion batteries depend on several scarce and environmentally sensitive resources. Lithium itself has concentrated reserves, cobalt is often linked to unsafe labor conditions, and nickel extraction raises pollution and depletion concerns.4 Even graphite, the conventional anode material, contributes additional impacts. These dependencies create vulnerabilities in both environmental and social dimensions.
Graphene advantages
Graphene, derived from carbon, draws on an abundant element available worldwide. Sources range from graphite to waste carbon, offering opportunities for more circular feedstock supply. This abundance and flexibility reduce geopolitical risks and resource scarcity concerns. However, sustainability benefits depend on whether carbon is sourced from renewable or waste streams rather than virgin fossil-based sources.6
Recyclability and End-of-Life Management
Lithium recycling
Recycling infrastructure for lithium-ion batteries is relatively advanced compared to graphene. Economic incentives exist for recovering cobalt, nickel, and lithium, and recovery methods for graphite are also being developed.5 Despite this, collection and recycling rates remain modest, with substantial room for expansion. Effective recycling is central to mitigating the resource burden of lithium-ion systems.
Click here to download a PDF copy of this page
Graphene recycling potential
Graphene recycling is less developed but conceptually promising. Waste graphite can be upcycled into graphene, creating opportunities for circular economy applications.5 Graphene’s chemical stability also makes multiple-use cycles feasible. The current barrier is the lack of specialized recycling facilities and efficient separation processes. Without this infrastructure, sustainability gains remain largely theoretical.7
Energy Efficiency and Operational Impact
Graphene batteries
Graphene offers several operational benefits that could translate into sustainability advantages. These include faster charging, higher cycle life, and better energy density.6 Longer lifespan means fewer replacements, reducing cumulative material and energy use. Higher efficiency during charging cycles also reduces operational losses.
Lithium batteries
Lithium-ion technology has undergone decades of optimization. Efficiency and thermal management are well understood, and degradation patterns are predictable.3 However, typical capacity fade requires battery replacements, adding to lifecycle impacts. Despite this, lithium’s established use-phase performance has already been factored into energy systems planning.
Toxicity and Health Risks
Graphene risks
Emerging studies point to health and ecological risks from graphene production. Inhalation of airborne particles during manufacturing may affect respiratory health, while the long-term environmental fate of released graphene is uncertain.8 Moreover, some production routes involve solvents and reagents that contribute significantly to human toxicity categories.1
Lithium risks
Lithium batteries carry established toxicity concerns. Electrolytes contain hazardous organic solvents, while cobalt and nickel present known occupational and ecological hazards.4 Battery failures can also lead to fires and toxic gas emissions. While mitigation strategies exist, these risks remain integral to the sustainability debate.
Long-Term Sustainability Prospects
Graphene pathways
For graphene to achieve sustainability advantages, green production methods must be scaled. This includes renewable energy integration, benign chemistry, and the use of waste carbon as feedstock.8 LCAs suggest that design for recyclability and safer synthesis are immediate priorities.9
Lithium pathways
Lithium batteries are evolving toward reduced dependency on scarce metals. Research into cobalt-free cathodes, the use of abundant elements like iron, and solid-state alternatives shows progress.4 Improvements in recycling efficiency and more responsible mining practices are also critical.
Comparative outlook
In the short term, lithium-ion batteries are likely to hold sustainability advantages because they benefit from existing infrastructure and recycling practices.
Graphene batteries may offer future benefits, but currently face challenges related to production energy use and the absence of recycling systems. Over the longer term, graphene’s basis in abundant carbon resources could become more significant, particularly if shortages of critical metals increase.7
Outlook
Comparisons between lithium-ion and graphene batteries do not point to a single, definitive sustainability advantage. Lithium-ion batteries benefit from established manufacturing, recycling systems, and proven performance, but continue to face issues related to critical mineral extraction and toxicity.
Graphene batteries offer potential advantages in durability, material abundance, and upcycling opportunities, though current production is energy-intensive and recycling pathways are not yet in place.
The sustainability of both technologies will depend on progress in four areas: the use of renewable energy in production, expansion of recycling infrastructure, development of safer material chemistries, and integration with circular economy strategies.
Lithium-ion batteries are likely to remain the more practical option in the near term, while graphene may gain greater relevance over time if production methods improve. In the longer term, the balance will depend on how effectively each technology manages resources, emissions, and end-of-life impacts across the full lifecycle.
References and Further Reading
- Li, X., Jin, H., Chan, Y., Guo, H., & Ma, W. (2023). Environmental impacts of graphene at industrial production scale and its application in electric heating technology. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 197, 107250. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2023.107250
- Cossutta, M., Vretenar, V., Centeno, T. A., Kotrusz, P., McKechnie, J., & Pickering, S. J. (2020). A comparative life cycle assessment of graphene and activated carbon in a supercapacitor application. Journal of Cleaner Production, 246, 118468. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2019.118468
- Popien, J.-L., Thies, C., Barke, A., & Spengler, T. (2023). Comparative sustainability assessment of lithium-ion, lithium-sulfur, and all-solid-state traction batteries. International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-023-02134-4
- Sharma, S. S., & Manthiram, A. (2020). Towards more environmentally and socially responsible batteries. Energy & Environmental Science, 13(10), 4087–4115. https://doi.org/10.1039/D0EE02511A
- Rey, I., Vallejo, C., Santiago, G., Iturrondobeitia, M., & Lizundia, E. (2021). Environmental impacts of graphite recycling from spent lithium-ion batteries based on life cycle assessment. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 9(50), 17068–17077. https://doi.org/10.1021/ACSSUSCHEMENG.1C04938
- Mishra, Y., Chattaraj, A., Aljabali, A. A. A., El-Tanani, M., Tambuwala, M. M., & Mishra, V. (2024). Graphene oxide–lithium-ion batteries: Inauguration of an era in energy storage technology. Clean Energy, 8(3), 194–205. https://doi.org/10.1093/ce/zkad095
- Ali, A., Liang, F.-H., Zhu, J., & Shen, P. K. (2022). The role of graphene in rechargeable lithium batteries: Synthesis, functionalisation, and perspectives. Nano Materials Science, 4(3), 146–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoms.2022.07.004
- Beloin-Saint-Pierre, D., & Hischier, R. (2020). Towards a more environmentally sustainable production of graphene-based materials: Building on current knowledge to offer recommendations. International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 25(11), 2156–2173. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-020-01864-z
- Munuera, J., Britnell, L., Santoro, C., & Cuéllar-Franca, R. (2021). A review on sustainable production of graphene and related life cycle assessment. 2D Materials, 8(2), 022001. https://doi.org/10.1088/2053-1583/ac3f23
Disclaimer: The views expressed here are those of the author expressed in their private capacity and do not necessarily represent the views of AZoM.com Limited T/A AZoNetwork the owner and operator of this website. This disclaimer forms part of the Terms and conditions of use of this website.